HOTEL HERITANCE KANDALAMA AND ITS IMPACTS

By P.A Koliyabandara

The hotel industry is lagging behind other industries with respect to applying environmentally conscious practices and research dedicated to these practices. Some individual hotels and chains have taken the first steps towards greening the hotel industry, but considering environmental requirements as integral goals of business is novel to most organisations in this industry. Therefore it’s important to have an overview on current hotel systems to which extent they have succeeded in reducing their impacts on physical, biological and social environment. Nestled at the foot of Mt Ereulagala and Mt Dikkandahena in Sri Lanka is the Kandalama Hotel. Kandalama’s attractiveness and uniqueness lies in its location which is at the cross-roads of different ecological zones that harbour a spectrum of wild life leaning against a thickly wooded rocky outcrop, in close proximity to five UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It is spanning 995 metres and covers 55 acres. It is a common place to watch herds of elephants migrating across the plains towards the seasonal tanks. 

The Kandalama hotel was the first environmental hotel project in Sri Lanka when it was conceived with significant consultation with the local community in 1992. Initially, the development was met with much public debate as many people living in the relatively pristine and undeveloped region opposed to any tourism development, as the area is one of the most significant regions of the country for wildlife. The first EIA report was failed due to its less comprehensiveness. The key environmental issues targeted by EIA were the impact of the initial construction on local forest and scenic beauty, the impacts during construction activities (clearing, disturbance, erosion and sedimentation), the effects of the hotel site on natural hydrology and run off patterns, the discharge of solid and liquid waste into the lake system, the discharge of waste and operational by-products in the proximate semi-pristine forest system and the impact on the local community. Major issue faced by the Kandalama hotel was the release of waste water to the nearby Kandalama reservoir which was the main source of irrigation of people in the area. The disposal of solid wastes was also considered to be a threat to the water quality of the reservoir. Biological impacts are soil erosion in construction phase, damages to water quality and amount, flooding due land filling, disturbance to natural water ways, air quality reduction due to smoke,vibration, dust and serenity disturbance Problems to endemic fauna flora, habitat reduction, increase in hunting pouching activities, disturbance to animal migration paths are some of the biological impacts that were anticipated. Job creation, infrastructure improvement, disturbance to cultural and religious life is some social impacts. Priority was placed on reducing water consumption in kitchen, laundry and rooms. The hotel has taken a management decision to reduce their carbon footprint through improving energy efficiency and through offsetting. Reduced water use by operating dish washers at full capacity, operating the laundry machine at full capacity and reducing water quantity, introducing dish washes to the employee’s kitchen, training the employees and attending to housekeeping. The has improved the quality of waste water by segregating and adding an extra filter. The water is recycled for urinals and irrigation. Solid wastes are segregated to 16 different categories and bio degradable waste is now composted. Bio gas is generated and used for employee kitchen. The hotel has invested a new bio gas plant to reduce the use of fossil fuels. The fuel switch has led to additional CO2 emission saving 500 tons per year. By fuelling the biomass plan with Grilicedia wood, a renewable source compared with the existing boiler, the diesel consumption has been reduced by 18.000 litres annually, drastically reducing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the hotel. However, the Gassifier does not only benefit the environment, it also helps the surrounding communities by financially securing them and uplifting their livelihood. While 200 families within the community strongly benefits from supplying wood to the hotel, the planting of Grilicedia also had the effect that abandoned and fallow lands are enriched as the nodules in the roots nitrogenise the soil.

At the same time the leaves of the plant also provide food for livestock which raises the income for the villagers and increases the milk supply in the area contributing to better public health and saving of foreign exchange to import powdered milk which is not as healthy. The leaves if not used for livestock can be used as mulch to fertilize the soil, prevent erosion and prevent drying up especially in the dry zone. As the plant requires only a small amount of water it can be harvested biannually and in conjunction with other crops such as pepper. An annual yield of 74 tons of woody mass at the required moisture level of 20% from an acre is obtained. As a result 500 tons of carbon dioxide are saved by Heritance Kandalama annually.

The hotel has developed and implemented system for monthly monitoring of waste water, solid waste, carbon foot print. Targets are set, monitoring is conducted regularly and performance is reviewed monthly for continuous improvement. Keeping updated checklists, monitoring results and records, auditing through internal audits are the positive steps taken by the hotel. The purification processes of waste water recycling plant are regularly checked by scientists to ensure the compliance with the highest possible standards. The hotel has a comprehensive water-conservation policy, so surface water isn’t utilised by the hotel. Water is obtained from 150-200 foot tube wells and a maze of gutters collects rainwater.

Endemic birds like Ceylon blue magpie, Ceylon jungle fowl and reptiles like green pit viper, animals like Ceylon sloth bear, Ceylon spotted deer, Ceylon sambhur, wild boar elephant, black necked stork, green bee eater and monkeys could be found in this area. Though it is said no disturbance would occur to fauna during construction phase they could be harmed or disturbed. Comparatively with the other hotel projects the damage occur is low.14 macrophytes, 35 indigenous trees are found in the area and minimal cutting has been done. Replanting programmes are carried out. The building follows the contours of the hill outcrop and in some cases, is elevated on concrete piles allowing for surface habitat to remain. Open, concrete hallways span the length of the hotel, providing easy access to amenities while providing the guest with an unprecedented view of the surrounding environment.The concrete roof, which can absorb a large amount of passive solar energy, is being covered by sod with the intent of growing organic produce and insulating the structure. Food in the restaurants is locally grown and organic where available. The entire hotel has been non-smoking since 2001. An environmental ethic is fostered through what is known as the .Eco Park., an area near the employee residences that provides an environmental education centre for all employees and guests. The park includes a composting pit, a native tree nursery, the wastewater treatment plant, and an Eco Library for employees, guests and local school children. Kandalama’s outstanding performance in the tourism industry is reflected in the many awards received particularly for Eco management. I n addition to Kandalama being the proud recipient of the first Green Globe Certified Hotel in Asia, its other achievements include World Travel Market Awards for ‘Environmental Company’ in 1997, Leeds Green building certification and PATA Green Leaf Gold Award. These awards show Kandalama’s commitment to protecting the natural environment. It is a successfully implemented project by minimizing the negative impacts on the environment

Impacts of Kukule Ganga Hydropower Project

Yasika Subasinghe

Sri Lanka is poor in fuel resources such as coal, oil and natural gas, but is blessed with a number of sites suitable for hydroelectric power generation, which is economically efficient. The government has been supplying affordable energy to the people of Sri Lanka and the domestic industry by actively implementing hydroelectric power development projects. However, in the beginning of the 1990s, as a result of economic expansion and development, the demand for electricity in Sri Lanka increased by more than 8% on average, and the balance between the supply and demand of electricity became tight in the second half of the decade; thus it has been anticipated that Sri Lanka could be hit by a critical supply-demand situation for electricity in any dry year.

Kukuleganga Hydropower Project is designed to alleviate the tight supply-demand situation for electricity by utilizing Sri Lanka’s precious hydroelectric power resource to supply the affordable electrical power. In a preliminary feasibility study conducted in 1989 with funds provided by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), this project was conceived as a multi-purpose reservoir-type hydroelectric power plant with an output of 144 MW. After that, as a result of the feasibility study conducted with funds provided by the World Bank in 1992, a lower output Run-of-river type hydroelectric power plant equipped with a regulation pond was planned, because a reservoir-type hydroelectric power plant requires a large-scale resident relocation.

Environment Impact Assessment was carried out in 1993 and the operation was commenced in September 2003. In the EIA they have divided the Environment as Physical Environment, Ecological Environment and Socio-Economic Environment. The existed environment prior to implement the project was identified and then the possible Environmental impacts were predicted. The impacts were identified according to the short term and long term aspects. Short term impacts may arise due to temporary structures such as construction sites, construction camps and temporary roads. Long term impacts may occur due to permanent structures like diversion weir, regulation pond, quarry, dump site, work adits, waterways, power cavern, open air switch yard, new access roads, new transmission lines and resettlement host area. At the same time there might be positive and negative impacts on the environment. 

When considering the impacts on the environment impacts on Physical environment, Ecological environment and Social environment should be identified separately. Impacts on physical environment are Soil erosion, shore erosion, decrease in ground water level, increase in BOD and COD, off localized slope movements, surface water quality will be reduced and visual quality will be affected. Some of the Ecological damages are submerging of 25ha agricultural land, inundation of 10ha of Hallokaya Mukalana, changes of Hydrology and Limnology, decomposition of Organic matter and nutrients, spreading of aquatic weeds, affecting river-rine vegetation, habitat loss for reptiles and amphibians, reduction of DO in the bottom of regulation pond, and weir acts as a barrier to the migratory fish. Social and economic impacts can also be identified such as decrease in water quality and potential of Malaria vector breeding. 

Once the impacts are identified EIA should be able to give possible mitigatory measures for each impact in order to prevent or to minimize the damage to the environment. EIA report on the Kukuleganga Hydropower project consists of many mitigatory measures and many of them have been implemented in association with the project. There seem to be a good relationship with the people in the area and the staff of the Ceylon Electricity Board. Resettling is almost completed and resettling family was given a house with adequate facilities and a land for cultivation. Two main access roads were developed thus it provided access for better schools and employment opportunities 

Even though the mitigatory measures are implemented in order to minimize the environmental impacts, there are many other consequences where there the mitigatory measures are not sufficient to compensate the damage and as well as unidentified impacts may occur after implementing the project. Thus continuous monitoring and follow up should be done in order to maintain the smooth flow of the project.

Environmental Impacts on Hambantota Sea Port

By R.L.C. Livera 

The Port of Hambantota, also known as ‘Magampura’ is situated about 19 nautical miles north of the key shipping route between the Malacca Strait and the Suez Canal, which links Asia and Europe. Harbor is located at the mouth of Karagan Lewaya and occupies the entire area of the Lewaya. Immediate purpose of the project is to establish an oil import/bunkering terminal to cater to the needs of ship bunkering at the route south of Sri Lanka, in long term port will be developed as a major industrial port in the Southern Province in Sri Lanka and to become one of the major multipurpose ports and be a gateway to India and surrounding countries. 

Environmental Impact Assessment was carried out for systematic identification, prediction and evaluation of the project on physical, chemical, biological, cultural, socio-economic components of the environment and to incorporate environmentally sound development during planning and decision making process. EIA process of this project was carried out in accordance with the specific requirements of the Sri Lanka EIA process, as set out in the Terms of Reference (ToR) issued by the Coastal Conservation Department  of Sri Lanka.

The project of Hambantota Sea Port consist of main four phases as initial phase (2010), short term phase (2015), medium term phase (2025), long term phase (beyond 2040). From these the initial phase was completed in 2011 which was initiated in 15th January 2008. The estimated cost of this phase was US$ 361 million.

In the EIA report the environment characteristics existed in the project area before initiation of the project is analyzed according to physical environment, ecological environment and socio-economic environment. And the impacts associated with project are also mentioned in three categories as physical impacts, socio- economic and ecological impacts. Mitigatory measures which are planned to be adopted are also analyzed in the EIA report to minimize the impacts in construction, planning and operating stages.

Physical impacts	Mitigatory measures adopted
Deterioration of coastal water quality due to dredging and excavation work of breakwaters and jetties (Construction phase)	All dredging activities and dumping of dredging material was carried out when the wave climate was not too severe(during NE Monsoon period) Avoid exposure of released material to direct air to minimize volatilization of organic chemicals
Disposal of excavated materials and other debris arising during construction (Construction phase)	These sediments were utilized for land reclamation purposes as a filling material
Impacts at the quarry sites with dust emission (Construction phase)	Minimized by wetting and wet spraying of dusty surfaces, carefully stockpiling construction and quarry materials to avoid unnecessary dust and covering against wind and rain. All quarrying activities were carried out in consultation with GSMB under provisions of Mine and Minerals Act No 33 of 1992
Impacts on air and water quality	Counting air blast over pressure and water quality measurement periodically
Impacts on coastal water quality due to spillage of construction materials (Construction phase)	Reduce possible spillage of grease, oil leaks from vehicles, earth moving equipment, hydraulic machinery and washing of unprotected core materials of breakwaters and jetties. Effects are temporary, materials rapidly settles
Impacts from noise and vibrations at quarry site from rock blasting, vibrations, shocks from blasting and construction activities such as pile driving and blasting (Construction phase)	Quarry sites are not located in the vicinity of noise and vibration sensitive areas, especially residential areas Explosive activities prohibited to avoid significant damage to buildings Noise generating equipment restricted only during day time and special vibration less techniques

Ecological Impacts	Mitigatory measures adopted
Impacts on marine ecology (construction phase)	Vibration less rock blasting methods were adopted, construction machinery and vessels were well maintained to prevent leakage of oil, fuel and lubricants.
Impacts on survival of birds and wildlife in Karagam Lewaya, important wetland habitat (construction and operational phase)	No dumping of dredged material in open areas to avoid impacts on birds and wildlife
Impacts on terrestrial fauna from dumping of household waste, waste generated by workforce, waste water and sewage (construction and operational phase)	Facilitate for waste water disposal in worker’s quarters, canteens and avoid contamination of Karagam Lewaya and immediate sea environment , semi or fully automated solid waste collection systems

Socio-economic Impacts	Mitigatory measures adopted
Relocation and resettlement of residences (Construction phase)	The valuation department has valued their properties (lands, houses and etc.) and paid compensations and also given land lots in a different locations
Impacts on agriculture (Construction and Operational phase)	Not much impact on agriculture in the project area as agriculture is not much done in project area
Impacts on archeological sites (Construction and Operational phase)	No specific sites of interest have been identified with the area subject to major constructions work both in land and sea.
Impacts on fishing community	No difficulty for fishermen to continue their fishing activities in the sea area close to the harbour. Only a small area of coastal belt was disturbed due to the development activities. Affected fishermen were identified and paid off with compensation under Phase 1 of the project.
Impacts from movement of sea water /fresh water interface in land	Lands cannot be used for cultivation therefore can be used for other purposes such as development of industrial zone
Impacts from noise and vibrations related to traffic	Proper traffic management, proper vehicle maintenance

Cost and benefit analysis done for the project is also included in the report in order to measure the costs and benefits associated with the port development project.

There are both negative and positive impacts from the Hambantota Sea Port. Positive impacts from the project are new employment opportunities, Development of infrastructure in the area, improvement of quality of life, resettlement of residents with better facilities, contribution to economic growth , development of tourism in the area, increased capacity for port traffic requirements, enhance export earnings via improvement of maritime transportation  and establishment of export companies, attraction of foreign investment.

But there are many negative impacts also such as destruction of terrestrial habitats of flora and fauna, irreversible impacts from alteration of Karagam Lewaya in to the sea port, negative impression on tourists by destruction of wildlife and habitats of Sri Lanka, problems in achieving anticipated costs and benefits by the Government, high interest rates for resettlement of loans taken for development of Hambantota Sea Port from China EXIM bank, additional expenses for vehicle importers to transport vehicles from Hambantota to areas such as Colombo, Kandy, Kurunegala etc., no charges are charged for unloading of vehicles, therefore less income for SLPA.

Planetary Boundaries

Planetary boundaries is the central concept in an Earth system framework proposed by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University. In 2009, the group proposed a framework of “planetary boundaries” designed to define a “safe operating space for humanity". This theory is based on scientific research that indicates that since the Industrial Revolution, human actions have gradually become the main driver of global environmental change.The researchers assess that once human activity has passed certain threshold level, defined as “planetary boundaries”, there is a risk of “irreversible and abrupt environmental change”.The scientists identified nine Earth system processes which have boundaries that, to the extent that they are not crossed, mark the safe zone for the planet. However, because of human activities some of these dangerous boundaries have already been crossed, while others are in imminent danger of being crossed.

The researchers identified nine "planetary systems" essential for human survival, and attempted to quantify just how far seven of these systems have been pushed already. They estimated how much further we can go before our own survival is threatened; beyond these boundaries there is a risk of "irreversible and abrupt environmental change" which could make Earth less habitable. Estimates indicate that three of these boundaries (climate change, biodiversity loss, and the biogeochemical flow boundary) appears to have been crossed. 

Figure: Plot of the planetary boundaries according to the Nature paper by Rockström et al.

The 2009 study identified nine planetary boundaries and, drawing on current scientific understanding, the researchers proposed quantifications for seven of them. These seven are 

• Climate change (CO2 concentration in the atmosphere < 350 ppm and/or a maximum change of +1 W/m2 in radiative forcing)
• Ocean acidification (mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to aragonite ≥ 80% of pre-industrial levels)
• Stratospheric ozone (less than 5% reduction in total atmospheric O3 from a pre-industrial level of 290 Dobson Units)
• Biogeochemical nitrogen (N) cycle (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N2 to 35 Tg N/yr) and phosphorus (P) cycle (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural background weathering of P)
• Global freshwater use (< 4000 km3/yr of consumptive use of runoff resources)
• Land system change (< 15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland)
• Rate at which biological diversity is lost (annual rate of < 10 extinctions per million species). 

The two additional planetary boundaries for which the group had not yet been able to determine a boundary level are chemical pollution and atmospheric aerosol loading.

Human Elephant Conflict in Sri Lanka

W.A.S Lakmali

Except for a small remnant population in the Peak Wilderness area, elephants are restricted to the lowlands, especially in the Dry Zone. Over the past 200 years, human land-use has forced the elephants from the wet and fertile regions of the south-west of the island to much drier regions. Between 3,160 and 4,405 elephants are estimated to be present in Sri Lanka (Kemf & Santiapillai, 2000) of which between 2,000 and 2,870 occur largely in the protected areas. The Department of Wildlife Conservation carried out a survey of elephants in much of the safe areas of the island in June 1993, and arrived at a minimum of 2,000 elephants in the wild in the five regions. They are North-western, Mahaweli, Central, Eastern and Southern areas. Almost all estimates are very approximate and these estimates may turn out to be underestimates, given the difficulty in counting elephants in the scrub. Each animal needs hundreds of square kilometers of territory as their home range. While Sri Lanka's forest cover is shrinking because its human population is expanding rapidly. Farmers are encroaching on jungle which was once the sole domain of the elephant. The result is injuries and deaths on both sides of the conflict.

Due to population pressures on elephant habitat, there is a severe toll both on elephants and rural communities from Human-Elephant Conflict. This conflict is at the heart of environmental conflict. With the reduction of the habitats, elephant populations have broken up and some herds have got pocketed in to small patches of jungle. many people are poor and landless, so they clear natural forest for agricultural use. In other parts, quickly expanding farms of such agricultural crops as sugar cane, rubber, and palm oil have replaced most of the forests that once supported wild elephant populations. These land uses increasingly displace wild elephants from their habitats and home ranges, which they travel through in search of food. Frequently, these elephants turn to farmer's crops to supplement their diets. Sri Lanka’s wild elephant population has been increasing over the last 10 years.

Conflict has become serious. These include Kotavehera, Kalegama, Navagattegama, Galgamuwa, Giribawa, Kahalle-Pallekele, Galewela, Pibidunugama, Galkiriyagama and Karuwalagaswewa in the northwest, Heen Ganga to Dumbara valley in the vicinity of Wasgomuwa National Park; Sigiriya-Habarana area in the Mahaweli area, and Ritigala-Kalawewa area.and Haldummulla, Uma Oya; the area between Lunungamvehera, Udawalawe and Bundala; Haltota-Haldummulla area north of Udawalawe National Park in the south. Elephants killed by humans as well as vise versa could be happening frequently in those areas.


Poaching for ivory or meat, Poisoned, cattle born disease, Electrocution and hit by trains are the main reasons for death of elephants. Asian elephants face almost certain extinction in almost every place they exist in the modern world. So conservation of wild elephants as well as protection of cultivations and property of the poor people is essential. In order to that mitigation of human –elephant conflict would be mitigating by adopting many techniques. Electric fencing, establishment of new national parks, habitat enrichment, establishment of Elephant Corridors, increasing the extent of conservation areas, translocation of elephants and elephant drives and integrating elephant conservation with economic development are some of them.

Management Plan of Wild Elephants is essential for Sri Lanka. Little information about available true number of elephants in the wild, the extent of suitable wild lands for the conservation of these endangered populations is needed. GIS and GPS can be used as a new technology for this purpose. The satellite GPS collars used in Myanmar and Sri Lanka to track the geographic location of the collared elephants.

Economic activities that would enable the local communities to derive some tangible benefits from the presence of elephants in their neighbourhood. e.g. manufacture of paper from elephant dung, organic farming using elephant dung, production of biogas using a combination of elephant and cattle dung. Conservation GIS Laboratory will develop a satellite-based early warning system that will demonstrate where rapid habitat loss is occurring.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and its Potential in Sri Lanka

M.A. Lankathilake

Between 1970 and 2004 the annual emission of CO2 grew by about 80% and during the last century, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen by twelve fold. Due to the greenhouse gas effect, with the increase of greenhouse gases (GHG) present in the atmosphere earth’s atmosphere get warmer and warmer. This cause climate change and other related problems. In 1990 IPCC mentioned that climate change is a threat to a whole world and whole world should be joining together to solve this issue. Then the UNFCCC was established and enter into force in March 1994 .Which works with the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentration of GHG at safe levels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, but this did not mentioned the quantity of the level of reduction of GHG.

Therefore in 1997 Kyoto protocol was adapted with the major objective of reduction of GHG by industrialized countries at least 5% compared to the emission levels in 1990 during the period 2008-2012.Accroding to the Kyoto protocol there are 3 mechanisms which can be use to meet the GHG emission reduction targets; Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint implementation (JI), International Emission Trading.

CDM is the mechanism which implementing projects in developing countries that reduce emissions of GHG or absorb GHG from the atmosphere and sell the amount avoided or absorbed to developing countries. There are 15 potential sectors for CDM listed by UNFCCC and among them the potential sectors identified for Sri Lanka are Energy, Industry, Transport, Waste management, Agriculture, Forest management, Plantations. Among these sectors almost all Sri Lankan CDM projects registered so far in the hydropower sector. But Sri Lanka also has the potential to conduct CDM projects in the other sectors also. The major issue related to CDM is lack of awareness, high cost of preparing PIN/PDD therefore high initial cost, difficulties in finding international buyers. Create an awareness programs at national levels and give an international exposure to our CDM potential and CDM projects are some of the solutions that can be given for the issues.

According to the UNFCCC statistics it shows that the India and China get more benefits than Sri Lanka.CDM is the one of the best mechanism that can be implementing in our country as a developing country to contribute to the reduction of Global warming.

Current status of Endangered Herpetofauna in Sri Lanka

Asha Dissanayake

Herpetofauna mean all reptiles and amphibians of a certain area. Herpetofauna constitute significant biomass, often exceeding that of all other vertebrates. They form important linkages in the ecosystem by providing dispersal mechanism for plants, form an important link in the tropic structure through predation, and form a potential prey- base themselves, contribute to environmental heterogeneity, and have key stone function in maintaining ecosystem structure and forest important symbiotic associations with an array of organism.

Sri Lanka ranks as a great herpetological paradise in the world. It is blessed with not only high amphibian and reptile diversity and endemism, but also relatively high densities of individuals interested in herpetology and publications, especially when compared with other countries in South Asia.Sri Lanka supports a high species richness and endamacity in herpertofauna, with 106 described species of amphibians and 171 described species of reptiles. Among them there are 56 reptiles and 52 amphibians are totally threatened. Yala National Park,Knuckles Range, Udawattakelle Sanctuary, Sinharaja, and Horton plains are the herpetological importance sites in Sri Lanka.

At present large scale conversion of forest areas for agriculture, plantation and settlements has put great stress on the remaining tropical forests of the country. Changing land use patterns, habitat fragmentation and habitat destruction have caused severe threats to the amphibian and reptiles. Also a combination of other factors including use of organoclorine pesticides and herbicides may have caused declining population of once abundant Herpetofauna of Sri Lanka.

Hence it is of critical importance to comprehensively identify the Herpetofauna of Sri Lanka in order to develop conservation measures which may help in encouraging ecotourism, building biodiversity database, land use planning and the production of regional and international Red Data Books of threatened species.